Eliminating Gender Disparities in Education

The Commonwealth of Learning and the British Council hosted two virtual conferences to feed into the Parallel Symposium at the 15th Conference of Commonwealth Education Ministers (15CCEM):

• Eliminating gender disparities in education (22 September to 10 October 2003)
• Supporting education in difficult circumstances (8 October to 22 October 2003)

The conferences were were e-mail based and were open to all (at no cost). The two topics were selected from six action areas discussed jointly at 15CCEM by Ministers and Symposium delegates.

Participants were challenged to approach the conferences by discussing "local solutions to local problems" and to share experiences of, and solutions to, the issues being discussed.

Helena Fehr, Governance and Programme Officer, Commonwealth of Learning moderated the Eliminating Gender Disparities in Education conference. Sheena Hanley, who was until recently the Deputy Secretary-General of Education International, moderated the conference on Supporting Education in Difficult Circumstances.

Outcomes were shared with delegates at the 15CCEM Parallel Symposium.
Details, background, and a summary of discussions are also available at: www.15ccem.com  (select "Virtual conferences")

Outcomes of the "Eliminating Gender Disparities in Education" Virtual Conference

One of the goals agreed at the UN Millennium Summit in September 2000 was "To eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, preferably by 2005 and in all levels by 2015". This goal was an endorsement of one of the Education For All objectives set earlier in the year at the Dakar World Education Forum.

Gender disparity can be in favour of boys or girls, but despite a general move towards greater equity, in many countries the disparity remains strongly in favour of boys. Disparity can be evident in access to education, in educational processes within schools, and in completion rates. In some countries, girls suffer in two ways: they have less access to education because of distance or unsafe conditions; and they are more likely to drop out, or be withdrawn due to economic or other extenuating circumstances, a need to look after an ailing relative, etc., even when they do have access. On the other hand, there is evidence that were gender disparities are less in terms of access, they also tend to be less in terms of completion rates. In many countries, including for example, some industrialised countries, the Caribbean and increasingly the Pacific, there are concerns about the progression rates and achievements of boys.

Reasons for disparities can be complex and vary from country to country, but they are often due to a range of economic, social, and cultural factors. Although the relative underperformance of boys has been widely researched, the reasons are not fully understood and the phenomenon remains resistant to interventions to change the situation.

This opened discussion on a number of aspects of gender disparity in education that need to be addressed:

• How does gender disparity manifest itself in specific cultural, social and economic contexts in terms of its features, reasons and consequences?
• Has there been progress made in terms of improving any aspects of gender disparity? If so, what strategies have been found to be useful?
• What is that governments and local communities do when they work most effectively together to reduce gender disparity?
• What are some examples of success stories?
• More questions were raised as the discussion continued. They included:
• How does the social construction of gender interact with other identities - such as race, ethnicity and religion?
• How do we, as educators, encourage the development of critical thinkers? How do we encourage critical discussions of gender stereotypes and how do we encourage sustained attitudinal change of these stereotypes?
• Moving beyond a narrow focus on a narrow definition of school-based education to encompass non-formal learning and lifelong learning, how does gender issues fit into these contexts? For example, when young people complete, or leave, their formal schooling and enter the world of work - how do gender issues change? Does the "education" on gender lead to sustained attitudinal change that is reflected in their workplaces and society as a whole? Or do they revert back to society's perceptions of gender, i.e., reflecting learned behaviour?
• Why are Ministers of Education and other policymakers not providing permanent resources and commitments to act on the work and the research that is currently available to enable changes to happen now?

The virtual discussion participants addressed a number of these questions. Below is a summary of the key issues and possible solutions discussed. A suggested list of useful websites concludes this summary paper.

Key Issues

Sex versus gender socialisation
Gender disparities in education stem from the gender socialisation of either being male or female and the subsequent expectations, or lack thereof, made on the individual. The example provided suggested that the female is expected to be the homemaker and that this role will more often than not take precedence over other personal accomplishments or achievements such as education. The male, on the other hand, is expected to accomplish and achieve in the areas of personal accomplishment. While there are social and cultural factors at play, there are spoken and unspoken messages, which often affect the performance of learners at whichever level of education they are at. Differential attitudinal messages and expectations, for example, access, achievement and completion.

Educational indicators
A participant reminded colleagues that educational indicators broken down by sex are of fundamental usefulness but that if they are presented only in terms of a single variable, they may not provided a clear picture. Therefore, disaggregation by social class, private/public, gender, urban/rural residence is necessary. For instance, the difference between girls of poor and wealthy households is strong. The combination of being female and living in a poor household leads to an educational disadvantage. Urban/rural inequities compound the situation. These inequities are greatest in the low-income countries and much higher among older adolescents; girls in rural areas suffer from greater inequalities than girls in urban areas.

Definitions of schooling
There is a tendency to define "education" narrowly as "schooling", which encourages the tendency to equate education with formal schooling and therefore reduces other forms of schooling, i.e., distance education, open learning, and non-formal education to second rate. One contributor argued that the primary clients of "second rate education" are the marginalized, the less affluent women/girls and men/boys.

Access
The most significant challenge identified was that of access to education by girls. Girls either do not get a chance to attend school or they are pulled out first when circumstances dictate, for example, to help with agricultural duties, household duties at home, to care for younger siblings (particularly in light of the HIV/AIDS pandemic) or older relatives. Barriers preventing girls from attending school deepen in emergency situations where it is the task of the government to receive refugees. Being traumatised and excluded from school because you are pregnant, because you are female, is "killing a whole generation". Long distances between home and school and the shortage of proper sanitation facilities for girls are contributing factors, as is sexual harassment by older boys and male teachers.

The economics of gender in education also need to be addressed, for example, in poor communities, girls are often the first ones pulled out of school. Another aspect of the economic issue is access to quality education. In India, the emerging middle class tend to send their boys to private educational institutions to ensure access to higher quality education whereas the girls are sent to the local government-funded school where quality of the education and the relevance of the curriculum may be of doubtful relevance. One contributor inquired whether "the rate of return in educational investment in schooling is more apparent and preferable proof for international development loan organisations such as the World

Bank and the IMF?"
Another key issue is that of child labour. A participant argued that unless child labour is viewed as full-time work at the cost of education it will not become socially unacceptable. And unless it is recognised as such by policymakers, universal primary education will remain out of reach. Moreover, the definition of child labour needs to be widened beyond wage employment to encompass children, especially girl children, who are out of school for purposes of purposes of planning and resource allocation by governments.

Cultural and social perceptions and attitudes
Cultural attitudes such as early marriage, that pregnancy and child bearing are the "ultimate fulfilment of womanhood, particularly when accompanied by marriage" is contributing to the replication of gender stereotypes. In some African countries initiation ceremonies as girls pass into womanhood are significant events. After these initiation rights, there is often a shift in attitude by the girls themselves away from school and studies to boyfriends and sexual relationships. Girls are also often taught to be subservient to their husbands and to willingly accept their subordinate status.

Invisible barriers such as "informal" discrimination - i.e., the attitudes of men and women in power, such as those who sit on interview boards, control curriculum, etc. - can also be contributing factors. Alternatively, in some countries affirmative action policies have been introduced to increase the chances of girls and women to gain entry into different levels of education, particularly higher education. Bursaries were identified as another way of increasing opportunities to access quality education.

In South Asia, it appears that girls are encouraged to attend school but they are not necessarily encouraged to complete their education. Often they are pulled out a certain point, as the perception is that a highly educated woman may not be suitable for marriage. There was also a discussion on power and silence and its links to gender, culture and class inequities. The more powerful and more educated tend to claim more right to frame social meanings and realities for others - whose voice, whose disparity?

Achievement
In Africa, boys have traditionally performed better at school than their female counterparts. But in the Caribbean the situation has reversed. A similar trend is becoming evident in the Pacific, Canada, the United Kingdom and the U.S. In parts of India, girls are beginning to move into non-traditional fields such as engineering and maths. They are, however, experiencing a backlash - parents are educating their girls but are now discovering that there is no work for them in their fields of interest and that men do not necessarily want to marry their daughters because they are too educated. Similarly, once they are married, women tend to drop out of the workforce.

In Zambia, one of the biggest reasons girls drop out of school is their failure to pass exams and to be promoted to the next grade. At the family level, parents tend to view boy's education as ultimately more cost effective as girls usually join their husband's family once they are married.

Curriculum Design
While participants agreed that changes in curriculum and the way gender roles are projected in curriculum materials, it was also noted that males and females have fundamentally different approaches to learning and competing. Research indicates that girls have a higher comfort level when competing as a group versus individually. It was therefore suggested that further research reviews highly competitive professions such as medicine, law, engineering, etc. to see if group/team based evaluations and curriculum approaches improve female enrolment and success rates.

Equity
Equity in education and training refers to the way in which resources are distributed among individuals or groups. In Australia, for example, government policy has shifted from a focus on girls to boys. This, in turn, translates into more government funding being spent on boys and education. This shift, in turn, raises questions about why the focus on boys. One participant suggested that from the feminists' perspective, the focus is concerned with constructions of masculinity and femininity. One of the goals of this focus is to stop focussing just on girls as the problem and to focus on masculinity as a problem (perhaps as the problem). The other focus seems to leave the status quo unquestioned and is more related to "reclaiming" dominant masculinity. The conclusion reached by the debate on this issue indicated that any difference in outcomes between boys and girls should be treated with equal concern.

It was noted that while some countries may be grappling with equity in access for either girls or boys, others have shifted to quality and achievement for either boys or girls. A common thread, however, is that women still have to "catch up" in securing higher-level jobs in both developed and developing countries. And while men and women play different complementary roles in society, the real problem remains how those roles are perceived and how much value is placed on them?

Participants observed that gender stereotyping tends to relegate girls and women to a limited number of training opportunities. Examples were provided that highlighted their limited access to technical education, vocational and entrepreneurship training programmes, and the professions of science and related professional programmes such as engineering and technology.

A recent seminar/workshop, held in London, and entitled "Beyond Access: Curriculum for Gender Equality and Quality Basic Education in Schools" gave rise to a number of clear messages surrounding curriculum and gender equity. A key conclusion, emerging both from the seminar papers and participant's discussion, was that school curriculum is a necessary but not sufficient condition for gender equity in education. For gender equitable education to be possible, change must be pursued simultaneously at all levels at all times - girls and boys must be consulted and work must occur with teachers, parents, policymakers and the wider community. Related discussions focused on the fact that changing gender stereotypes rely on the presence of adult women in society as advocates and role models and the crucially important role that NGOs play in facilitating this role. More information on these seminars/workshops can be found at http://www.ioe.ac.uk/efps/beyondaccess  

Solutions

Open and distance learning
Open schooling and distance learning were seen as ways of addressing the challenge of access. Different distance learning programmes were identified, such as those offered by IGNOU in India and the Botswana College of Open and Distance Learning, where 70% of the learners are women - were provided as positive examples. Aspects of open and distance learning that constitute best practice were also identified, including ensuring learner support (by telephone, face-to-face, electronically, etc.), quality materials, etc. A challenge identified by several distance education practionners is that ODL continues to be considered a second rate education by some.

Technology
Increasing use of appropriate technology to extend education to marginalized groups, particularly rural women, was suggested. For example, the Commonwealth Youth Programme's Technology Empowerment Centre on Wheels programme acts as a portable tele-learning centre. Access to technology can also be a problem if the location is not right - i.e., the safety of the learner is at risk, dim lighting can also contribute to safety issues, etc. or the media mix is wrong for the location. For example, rural areas where low-levels of technology such as radio may be more appropriate.

Another example was provided by an Oxford-originated voluntary group, which supports Knowledge-Aid for Sierra Leone. The project is locally run and helps teachers (initially in secondary schools) to use the Internet in their teaching, notably by downloading teaching materials. The hope is to build up over time a virtual library of Internet-based materials tailored to the educational needs of the country. It is assumed by the project mangers that the project is currently blind to gender, race, and religion and that in time it will increase opportunities for women. In that context, it was suggested that a valuable linked project would be on one that established virtual libraries of short case histories of success, and potentially lessons learned, in reducing gender disparities in education. It would be useful if this material was organised on a regional basis in order to better meet the differing needs of teachers.

One contributor cautioned that technology can also be seen as a barrier that is creating new conditions of inequity, which in turn are influencing issues of poverty, literacy, democracy, gender, health and the environment.

Conclusion - where to begin?

Gender studies should become part of the curriculum at all levels - both in face-toface and open and distance learning programme; the curriculum should tackle gender stereotypes and ensure that the work is not viewed in isolation but as community based/society oriented programme
Teachers should receive gender training rather than assumptions being made that they are innately aware of the issues of gender and how to tackle them in the classroom _ Constructing systems of support for, and mentoring of, women have been successful. Should similar models be used for boys?
Re-socialise all members of society, beginning at the family level
Co-education schools whereby attitudes can be changed and assumptions challenged beginning at the primary level
Educational institutions need to set up systems and structures that cater to different gender needs
Curriculum: hanging the language and examples in texts and materials is a good start but needs to be backed up by changes in societal roles
Attitude of the "person in charge" such as the teacher can make a big difference
Should quotas at universities be implemented for girls? What about the places where boys are lagging behind in achievement? Should similar quotas be implemented for boys?
Are there good role models for girls and boys? i.e., not just women practicing as lawyers, etc. but that are also active in other areas such as technical/vocational and trades; are there useful role models for boys beyond music and sport stars?
Poverty and hunger issues need to be addressed alongside gender and health issues as part of a package of social uplift programmes
What is the level of gender sensitisation of advocates - i.e. attitudinal change or is it only lip service?

A Nigerian colleague summed up the challenges - is it actually possible to eliminate gender discrimination? Are we ourselves accountable or are we only "workshop vanguards" that espouse the values of gender equality because we have attended a workshop or have been advised that gender is a politically correct issue? It is a challenge that we should all reflect upon.


Suggested websites:
UNHCR's Guidelines on Sexual and Gender-Based Violence:
http://www.panos.org.uk/resources/reportdetails  (link no longer works, January 2007)

"Beyond Access: Gender, Education and Development" project funded by the UK's
Department for International Development, World Bank and UNICEF - http://www.girlseducation.org  ; http://www.ioe.ac.uk/efps/beyondaccess  

UNESCO Institute for Statistics: http://www.uis.unesco.org  
Talibanism in Technology: http://www.dqindia.com/content/special/103022602.asp  

"Cultural Stereotypes and Household Behaviour. Girl Child Labour in India" http://hrdc.undp.org.in/childrenandpoverty/REFERENC/REPORTS/EPW/CULTURAL.htm- Neera Burra
(author)  

"Brave New Women of Asia: How distance education changed their lives" - Asha S. Kanwar
and Margaret Taplin (eds.) 

Using distance education for the education of children -
http://bfranklin.edu/gld/what.htm#back  

Engineering programme for creative applications at New York University -
http://www.itp.nyu.edu  

Women and the fight for gender (general websites) -
http://www.earlham.edu/~pols/ps17971/terneel/  
http://www.unicef.org/gender/  
http://www.twnside.org.sg/title/fronts-cn.htm  
http://www.techweb.com/wire/story/TWB20000808S0016  
http://www.reliefweb.int/  
http://www.spectrezine.org/europe/womeninsweden.html  

"Teaching/Learning Gender Equity" 


Summarised by Helena Fehr, Commonwealth of Learning
October 2003